Foundational syntax

Character categories

There are 16 character categories:^ref

Characters can be assigned a different catcode (which is local to the current group) with the \catcode command. For example, \makeatletter is a commonly used catcode manipulation helper in LaTeX. Start latex and run:

\*\*\show\makeatletter > \makeatletter=macro: ->\catcode \`\@11\relax .

I.e., makeatletter is a macro that uses \catcode to put the @ character into the “Letter” category so that it can participate in command names. We can look at its default setting:

\showthe\catcode\`\@ > 12. Which produces 12., meaning @, by default, is in the “Other” category.

TeX has ten special characters (TeXBook, ch. 7, pg. 38): \ { } $ & # ^ _ % ~

Note that @ is not one of those characters.

Control sequences

There are two types of control sequences:

1. Control words
   • Some LaTeX commands are control words, which are a backslash followed by one or more letters, terminated by the first non-letter.
   • Control words absorb any amount of space after them.
2. Control symbols
   • Control symbols don’t absorb any space after them (at least, not immediately), because it’s not ambiguous when they end; they’re only ever one character.
   • But the control symbols which represent accent commands are defined such that the space is absorbed. But that’s at a different stage.

A control sequence can be composed from raw tokens with the \csname and \endcsname commands. E.g., \csname TeX\endcsname is like saying \TeX.

Literal characters can be specified by ASCII code with the \char command; for example:

\char98 = \char'142 = \char"62 = b

Since decimal 98 = octal 142 = hexadecimal 62.

There is also a \symbol command, which simply wraps \char and adds a \relax after the given character code. This can be handy if you’re not sure what will follow your \char macro. The following are all equivalent and produce the Unicode character, “U+221E (INFINITY)”:

\symbol{8734} = \symbol{'21036} = \symbol{"221E} = ∞

ASCII’s control characters can be represented by a special prefix, ^^. E.g.: ^^@ = “U+0000 NUL” (Null), ^^A = “U+0001 SOH” (Start of Heading), etc. up to ^^_ = “U+001F US” (Unit Separator)

Debugging

Calling tex and latex without arguments will bring up interactive prompts for the respective compilers. It’s probably handy to run them under rlwrap, e.g., rlwrap tex. By default, these will write a texput.dvi file when done, which can be converted to texput.pdf with dvipdf texput.dvi.

• \show expands a macro and displays the expanded equivalent at the interactive prompt. If the thing following \show is a primitive, the resulting message is not very helpful.

  \*\show\badness > \badness=\badness.

• \the extracts a representation of the thing following it, and puts that on the output. So it doesn’t show up at the interactive prompt, which is unfortunate.^ref
• \showthe is like \the, but outputs to the interactive prompt / log, like \show. Nice!

• \overfullrule=1em prints a big black box (in the right margin) where there are are overfull lines.

• See also https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/60491/latex-tracing-commands-list and https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/311910/interactive-console-at-terminal-evaluating-commands

Dedicated packages

• showkeys is a package that causes \label and \bibitem to print their key values in the margin, and causes \ref, \pageref, and \cite to print their argument(s) directly above their normal output.

  Simply import the package to achieve this effect: \usepackage{showkeys}

• showlabels is similar, but can also typeset the keys in the text if you like (thus affecting the overall flow). By default, it only prints out keys for \label commands.

  E.g., to print out all labels in the left margin:

  \usepackage[left]{showlabels}
  

  And to use a slightly smaller font for these keys (the default is \small\ttfamily):

  \renewcommand{\showlabelfont}{\scriptsize\ttfamily}
  

• showframe draws frames around each of the page layout components. Very useful alongside this Page Layout reference.

  \usepackage{showframe}
  

Macros

LaTeX^ref

• \newcommand\mycmd{...}: Creates a new command and breaks if mycmd already exists.
• \renewcommand\mycmd{...}: Overwrites mycmd, and breaks if mycmd doesn’t already exist.
• \providecommand\mycmd{...}: Overwrites mycmd only if mycmd doesn’t already exist, otherwise creates a new command.

• There is no \declarecommand\mycmd{...} to overwrite mycmd regardless, but you could define it like so:^ref

  \newcommand{\declarecommand}[1]{\providecommand{#1}{}\renewcommand{#1}}

Plain TeX^ref

• \def\mycmd{...}
• Or \gdef\mycmd{}, which declares \mycmd as a global, which may be useful if you’re already inside some scope and you want the variable to apply outside of it. For example:

Some packages or document classes facilitate configuring internal variables via proxy commands, e.g., a 3rd-party library might have this snippet:

\newcommand{\submissiondate}[1]{\gdef\@submissiondate{#1}}
% Later on, perhaps in \maketitle, call \@submissiondate{}

Which you would call in your consuming document, probably in the preamble:

\submissiondate{2014-11-20}

In such a case, not calling \submissiondate{...} in the consuming document will induce an error in the 3rd-party library, since \@submissiondate was never defined. There are two ways to handle this error.

1. Define a default: somewhere in the 3rd-party library, call \def\@submissiondate{A long time ago}

2. Condition on @submissiondate having been defined, using the LaTeX standard macro \@ifundefined:

    \@ifundefined{@submissiondate}{Submission date not recorded}%
                                  {Submitted on \@submissiondate}
   

N.b. We use @submissiondate, without the \. If we had used \@submissiondate, it would try to evaluate that before passing control to \@ifundefined.

Expansion

These are all primitives (i.e., they are built into the TeX compiler, not defined in latex.ltx or article.cls):

• \def takes two arguments; it defines a local macro that expands to the contents of the second argument.
  • E.g., \def\sayhello{Hello} does nothing immediately, but whenever \sayhello is subsequently used, it expands to the string “Hello”.
• \global makes the subsequent definition/assignment (\def, \let, \count, among others) global.
  • This means the (new) definition will hold even after leaving a group (if inside a group).

• \gdef is short for \global\def: it defines a global macro.

• \expandafter takes two arguments; it expands the second in place (by exactly one level of expansion), then returns to normal processing flow, expanding the first as usual.
• \noexpand wraps its single argument in a single level/layer of indirection.
  • Thus, if you \expandafter over something that has been \noexpand‘ed, it would only unwrap that single level, down to the pre-\noexpand value, but no further.
• \edef is like \def, but immediately expands the second argument.
  • This is handy for modifying an existing definition; e.g., to append/prepend something new to the existing value.
• \xdef is short for \global\edef

These are helpers that are defined in latex.ltx:

• \g@addto@macro takes two arguments, 1) a macro and 2) something that can be expanded. It expands the second, appends it to the current definition of the original macro.
  • It uses \xdef internally, so the new content effectively gets expanded twice.

Constants

References: What does \z@ do?

Character definitions (defined with \chardef in latex.ltx):

Counters and Variables

References: What are the differences between TeX counts and LaTeX counters?, LaTeX/Counters

Plain TeX:

\newcount <register> defines a number variable, a.k.a., a “count”. E.g., \newcount\mycounter.

<register> <number> sets the value of a register. You’ll often also see <register>=<number>, which does the same thing.

\advance <register> <number> increases the measure/width indicated by <register> by the amount indicated. Most often you’ll see something like \advance\mycounter 1\relax, which increases mycounter by 1. The \relax apparently tells LaTeX that’s the end of the number.

\the <register> prints out (i.e., into the document) the current value of the register, e.g., \the\mycounter or \the\leftmargin. \number can be used instead of \the in this case.

LaTeX:

\newcounter{<register>} defines a new counter, and there are several functions for manipulating it.

• \newcounter{mycounter} initialize the counter variable and sets it to 1.
• \setcounter{mycounter}{10} sets the counter to 10
• \stepcounter{mycounter} then sets the counter to 11
• \addtocounter{mycounter}{9} then sets the counter to 20
• \value{mycounter} outputs the content “20”

Creating a LaTeX counter also creates a function to retrieve its value, with the name \the<register>, so that \themycounter will return the value of the “mycounter” counter, same as \value{mycounter}.

There are several helpers for formatting the current values of counters, e.g., \Roman{mycounter}:

• \arabic: 1, 2, 3…
• \alph: a, b, c…
• \Alph: A, B, C…
• \roman: i, ii, iii…
• \Roman: I, II, III…

• \fnsymbol: *, †, ‡, §, ¶,

  , **, ††, …

All of these, except \arabic, will output blanks for non-positive numbers.

LaTeX counters are just wrappers around TeX counters, and can be accessed prefixed under the prefix “c@”, so the following are equivalent after calling \newcounter{somecount}:

• \the\c@somecount
• \thesomecount

Due to the prefix assumption, you can’t access TeX counters with LaTeX counter mechanisms unless the counter was named using the “c@” prefix.

Arithmetic

There are four primitives for doing arithmetic that operate on and return specific types.^ref

The different expressions determine what values each will consume.

The expression is greedily captured, so expressions are often terminated with a \relax, just to be safe/explicit.

• \numexpr: this consumes only integers, so if you give it a dimension, like 10pt, it will stop reading at p.
• \dimexpr: this consumes a dimension and then other values as makes sense. E.g.:
  • \dimexpr 20pt / 10 makes sense, and produces 2pt.
  • \dimexpr 20pt / 10pt, like \numexpr, reads only up until the p, since you can’t divide a dimension by a dimension (which would be expected to result in a ratio, not a dimension)
  • \dimexpr 6pt + 1in makes sense, and produces 78.27pt
• \glueexpr: this is \dimexpr, but for use with “rubber” lengths (a.k.a. skips). E.g.:
  • \glueexpr 2pt plus 1pt minus .5pt * 2 results in 4.0pt plus 2.0pt minus 1.0pt
  • \glueexpr 2pt plus 1pt minus .5pt / 2 results in 1.0pt plus 0.5pt minus 0.25pt

Control flow

\ifnum <left><R><right> <iftrue> /fi runs the code in the “iftrue” block if “left R right”, where R can be <, >, or =. E.g., \ifnum \the\mycounter =0 \textbf{First} \fi would insert the bold “First” if “mycounter” is 0, but do nothing for other values of “mycounter”. You can optionally specify a \else <iffalse> branch, e.g., \ifnum \the\mycounter =0 \textbf{First} \else Not first \fi

Boolean variables can be emulated with \newif:^ref

\newif\ifdraft

That declares two macros for setting the “draft” variable: \drafttrue and \draftfalse.

\drafttrue
% \ifdraft now expands to \iftrue

\draftfalse
% \ifdraft now expands to \iffalse

This makes conditionals easy to read. Supposing we want to turn on double-spacing when we’re in “draft mode”, and ensure we’re using single-spacing otherwise:

\ifdraft
  \doublespacing
\else
  \singlespacing
\end

Looping over array / stack / list data structure

Use \@for:^{ref, better}

For example, in a class or package:

\def\@coauthors{}
\newcommand{\coauthors}[1]{\gdef\@coauthors{#1}}

\newcommand{\signatureline}[1]{\parskip=12pt\par\hrulefill\parskip=-8pt\par#1}

\newcommand{\makesigntureform}{
  \signature{\@author, Corresponding Author}
  \@for\@i:=\@coauthors\do{\signatureline{\@i}}
}

Then, in your consuming document:

\author{Me}
\coauthors{Alice, Bob, Chandralan}
...
\makesignatureform
\maketitle

@

Reference: What do \makeatletter and \makeatother do?

Many packages use @ in their counter / macro names, which signals a sort of ‘private’ status.

In a class (.cls) or package (.sty) declaration, you can use @ in variable names without doing anything extra.

To use or modify these in normal LaTeX, you need to tell the compiler to treat the @ character as a normal word character:

\makeatletter

Then you can, for example, override the built-in list label command: \def\@mklab#1{#1\hfil} (which makes it align left instead of right). To set things back to normal:

\makeatother

Packages and classes

ref.

• \DeclareOption{flag}{\commands}: runs \commands (can be a whole bunch of commands) if flag was included in the optional arguments when the package or class was loaded, e.g., \documentclass[flag]{exam} or \usepackage[flag]{anim}.
• \DeclareOption*{\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{report}} is a handy way to cascade unhandled commands to be implicitly supplied when calling, e.g., \LoadClass[letterpaper]{report}.
  • But there is a limitation. Since argument order doesn’t matter, you cannot easily change the defaults in the base class. E.g., report handles 10pt, then 11pt, then 12pt, by overwriting the \@ptsize command with a different value. Thus, the argument that wins is the last one handled, which in this case, is the max of the supplied arguments. So, you can’t call \DeclareOption*... and then \ExecuteOptions{12pt} to set the default (or \LoadClass[12pt]{report}), because that 12pt will override whatever 10pt or 11pt the consuming document specifies.
• \LoadClass[letterpaper]{report}: Load the report class with the letterpaper option and whatever other options have been queued up via preceding \PassOptionsToClass{someoption}{report} calls.
• \LoadClassWithOptions{report}: Load the report class with all the same options that were supplied to this class.

Lists

• NASA Help page

Alignment

• Horizontal measurements.^ref
  • \hsize: apparently equivalent to to \textwidth, but more primal (plain TeX).
  • \textwidth: total width of the text area, potentially spanning multiple columns.
  • \columnwidth: total width of the column’s text area, equal to \textwidth if there are no columns (well, “no columns” is more properly considered as a single column)
  • \linewidth: total width of the current line / working area, if in a column or indented list environment.
• \centering vs. the center environment.^ref
  • A \centering scope should end with a \par or empty line, which is usually the case inside environments where you find \centering calls, like a \begin{figure} ... \end{figure} (or even the document environment, if the whole document should be centered), but something like {\centering The End} is usually an anti-pattern.
  • \begin{center} ... \end{center} is defined in terms of the trivlist environment, and adds vertical margins according to the \parskip measurement, but these will be absorbed into the page margins if set at the top or bottom of a page.
    • If you want a centered environment like center but without the extra space:^ref

    \newenvironment{centerzero}{\parskip=0pt\par\nopagebreak\centering}{\par\noindent\ignorespacesafterend}

  • \centerline is an undocumented LaTeX primitive, which doesn’t allow line breaks, so you’ll generally prefer the alternatives above.
  • More brute force, perhaps, but more flexible if you already have other content on a line and are centering less than a full line of text, you could wrap your text with \hspace*{\fill} or \hfill.
  • \tolerance defaults to 200 (which isn’t a length, just a value)^ref
    • Higher values avoid overfull and underfull lines by stretching/squeezing inter-word spacing
• Horizontal alignment.^ref
  • \hspace{10pt} will dissipate if used at a line break; use \hspace*{10pt} to avoid this. (I think it’s kind of like having empty \mbox{}s on either side?)
  • \hfill is equivalent to \hspace{\fill}
• Vertical alignment.^ref
  • The memoir document class provides a vplace environment, which takes an optional floating point argument (which defaults to 1) describing the ratio of space above to space below.
  • Centering vertically on the page (supposing #1 is your text to be centered):
    • \begin{vplace}[0.5]#1\end{vplace}
    • \vspace*{\fill}#1\vspace*{\fill}, preceded, if necessary, by \topskip0pt
    • \strut\vfill#1\vfill\strut
  • \vfill is equivalent to \vspace{\fill}, but there is no \vfill* that’s equivalent to \vspace*{\fill}.
    • That’s why we wrap in \struts to center something on page: it gives the \vfill commands something to push up against.

• Built in vertical measurements:^{ref via ref}

  Length name	Description	Default value for article class
  \floatsep	space left between floats	12.0pt plus 2.0pt minus 2.0pt
  \textfloatsep	space between last top float or first bottom float and the text	20.0pt plus 2.0pt minus 4.0pt
  \intextsep	space left on top and bottom of an in-text float	12.0pt plus 2.0pt minus 2.0pt
  \dbltextfloatsep	\textfloatsep for 2 column output	20.0pt plus 2.0pt minus 4.0pt
  \dblfloatsep	\floatsep for 2 column output	12.0pt plus 2.0pt minus 2.0pt
  \abovecaptionskip	space above caption	10.0pt
  \belowcaptionskip	space below caption	0.0pt

• \stretch{2} works for both horizontal and vertical alignment, and whereas \fill produces the skip length 0pt plus 1fill, \stretch{N} produces a skip length 0pt plus Nfill, so you could align something 3/4 down the page by like so:

  \vspace*{\stretch{3}} Footer Fragment Here \vspace*{\stretch{1}}

• \raggedright
• \raggedleft
• \begin{flushleft}

• \begin{flushright}

• \endgraf is a relic of TeX and is usually defined to \par. It’s unclear if it’s ever useful, or where.^ref

• \@@par seems to be the new \endgraf, but again, unclear where it’d be useful.

• \par is a TeX primitive and (usually) equivalent to a blank line in the .tex source. It’s more about starting a new paragraph than the current line.
• \\ tells LaTeX to start a new line. It’s more about the current line (what precedes the \\) than what comes after.
• \\* does the same, but avoids a page break (à la \nobreak).^ref
• \\[12pt] starts a new line and inserts 12pt of vertical space before it. ref.
• \newline is similar to \\; it breaks the line immediately, but it only works in paragraph mode. \\, on the other hand, is used in lots of other environments, like tabular and align, to separate rows.
• \linebreak breaks the line but continues as the same paragraph, so the broken line stretches to fill the full width.
• \linebreak[priority] suggests a line break with varying insistence (0: vague insinuation … 4: offer you can’t refuse).
• \allowbreak can be used to allow a line break, if needed, where there isn’t any whitespace. E.g., minipage environments that are back-to-back with each other. It is treated like an actual gap, so it does not insert a hyphen.
• You should rarely use \\ to break a line. The better solution is to use \par in some form (setting \parskip and \parindent as needed).^ref

  • For line-by-line needs, where the whole text shouldn’t all flow as it usually does, a minimal custom environment might be in order. For example, here’s how the report class defines the quote environment:

    \newenvironment{quote}{\list{}{\rightmargin\leftmargin}\item\relax}{\endlist}

    • The first argument to \list is the label for each item. In this case, it’s empty.
    • The second argument is run in the scope of the list; \rightmargin\leftmargin sets the \rightmargin length to the current value of the \leftmargin length (this is particular to the quote environment, which is center-set, but not center justified).

    Using proper environment bookkeeping and \setlength, we can rewrite this as:

    \newenvironment{quote}{\begin{list}{}{\setlength{\rightmargin}{\leftmargin}}\item\relax}{\end{list}}

• Most of the LaTeX document classes indent all paragraphs beyond the first one in a chapter / section, but leave that initial paragraph flush with the left margin.
  • To ensure that every paragraph is indented, even those at the beginning of chapters and sections, simply call \usepackage{indentfirst}, which is a minimalist package that simply aliases the \@afterindentfalse boolean setter command to \@afterindenttrue, which prevents any other package from setting \@afterindent to false (like would be done when calling \section{...}), which would cause the subsequent paragraph not to be indented. It is defined (in $TEXMFDIST/tex/latex/tools/indentfirst.sty) as: \let\@afterindentfalse\@afterindenttrue and then calls \@afterindenttrue once to set that if’s value (which seems like overkill to me).
  • To avoid indentation altogether, and instead separated paragraphs with vertical space, call \usepackage{parskip}. This package:
    • sets the paragraph indentation to zero, and
    • sets the paragraph skip value to a non-zero amount.
• \parbox[pos][height][contentpos]{width}{text}
  • pos and contentpos are vertical alignment indicators, and must be one of the following: t (top), c (center), b (bottom), or s (stretch)
  • pos defaults to t, and contentpos defaults to pos.
  • height is optional and must be a valid measurement / dimension expression
  • width is required and must be a valid width measurement (not a flexible length)

Rules

• \rule[raise]{width}{thickness}
  • raise: optional dimension expression, defaulting to 0pt.
  • width: required dimension expression, indicating how far, horizontally, the rule should extend.
  • thickness: required dimension expression, indicating how wide (thick) the rule should be.
• \hrule is a LaTeX primitive; you should use \rule instead.
• \hrulefill pads out a line with a horizontal rule; its effect on the rest of the line is identical to \hfill. So it’s like \rule{\hfill}{0.4pt} (0.4pt is an internal constant), but uses \hrule directly.

Spacing

• \strut produces a(n invisible) box with zero width and a height determined by the current font size.
  • \def\strut{\relax\ifmmode\copy\strutbox\else\unhcopy\strutbox\fi} (latex.ltx:558)
• \vphantom takes a single argument, figures out what height it would have, if rendered, and produces a zero-width box (a \strut) with that height. It’s especially handy in a math environment where you want to emulate a symbol of specific height so that your braces look right, e.g.:
  • $\left[10^{100^{100}}$ (a.k.a., a googol) $\vphantom{10^{100^{100}}}\right]$
• skips:
  • \smallskipamount is defined as 3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt
  • \medskipamount is defined as 6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt
  • \bigskipamount is defined as 12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt

Predefined / globally used lengths:^ref

• Page Layout
  • \columnsep: gap between columns
  • \topmargin: gap above header
  • \topskip: between header and text
  • \textheight: height of main text
  • \textwidth: width of text
  • \oddsidemargin: odd page left margin
  • \evensidemargin: even page left margin
• Paragraphs
  • \parindent: indentation of paragraphs
  • \parskip: gap between paragraphs
• Floats (tables and figures)
  • \floatsep: space left between floats.
  • \textfloatsep: space between last top float or first bottom float and the text.
  • \intextsep: space left on top and bottom of an in-text float.
  • \dbltextfloatsep is \textfloatsep for 2 column output.
  • \dblfloatsep is \floatsep for 2 column output.
  • \abovecaptionskip: space above caption
  • \belowcaptionskip: space below caption
• Maths
  • \abovedisplayskip: space before maths
  • \belowdisplayskip: space after maths
  • \arraycolsep: gap between columns of an array
• Lists
  • \topsep: space between first item and preceding paragraph.
  • \partopsep: extra space added to \topsep when environment starts a new paragraph.
  • \itemsep: space between successive items.
• Tables:
  • \arraystretch: row height (vertical) multiplier for tabular environments; Use \renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.4} to get something resembling booktabs spacing.
  • \tabcolsep (defaults to 6pt): horizontal space separating columns in tabular environments; Use \setlength{\tabcolsep}{3pt} to cut the default in half.

Pagination

• \newpage vs. \clearpage.^ref
  • \newpage is simpler. It just says ‘end this page here,’ but floats may get allocated to that page, or to the next page where the text picks up again. Or if you are in a non-final column of a multi-column layout, it will not cause a pagebreak, but only advance to the next column.
  • \clearpage calls \newpage internally, but beyond \newpage, it flushes all floats, so that when the text picks up again, it will start at the top of a fresh new page that is sure to have nothing on it except for the content following \newpage.
    • In a two-sided / even-odd layout, \cleardoublepage ensures the next page starts on the right-hand side (inserting a totally blank page if needed), i.e., on an odd-numbered page.
  • \pagebreak induces a page break.
  • \pagebreak[priority] suggests a page break…
    • \pagebreak[0]: “I dunno, you could start a new page here, or not, whatever. This page is nice, too.”
    • \pagebreak[1]: “Well I was thinking, this might be a nice place for a page break?”
    • \pagebreak[2]: “Some of this stuff would probably look better on the next page, what do you think?”
    • \pagebreak[3]: “Next page would sure be nice, but look I’m not gonna force you to do anything.”
    • \pagebreak[4]: “You know what, let’s do the next page. Nope, yep, next page. DON’T MAKE ME REMOVE THIS OPTIONAL ARGUMENT.”

Fonts

• If you want to apply bold face to the entire current scope, beyond a single call of \textbf{...} use {\bfseries ...}.
• The predefined font sizes (\tiny, \scriptsize, \footnotesize, \small, \normalsize, \large, \Large, \LARGE, \huge, \Huge) are defined relative to the base font size (10pt, 11pt, 12pt) used when loading the document class (e.g., report, article, etc.). \normalsize is set to that value, which defaults to 10pt if not specified. ref
• An arbitrary font size can be selected with \fontsize{14}{16.8}, which sets the font size to 14pt, and the line-spacing to 16.8pt (14pt * 1.2, which is the recommended factor for most fonts). The built-in measurement \baselineskip gets set to the second argument (16.8pt in this case). Unlike the predefined font size commands, you must call \selectfont after \fontsize{size}{linespacing} to get the new font size to take, but like them, the setting lasts throughout the current scope / group. ref.
• Speaking of line spacing, use the setspace package to handle double-spacing / one-and-a-half-spacing. It’s not too hard to change spacing with LaTeX primitives like \linespread{1.5} (or, alternatively, \renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{1.5}), but setspace reverts back to single-spacing for areas outside the main text (e.g., footnotes, tables, captions, among others), which is generally what you want.
  • setspace provides \singlespacing, \onehalfspacing, and \doublespacing commands, which apply to the whole current scope, as well as environments with the same names.
• This TeX StackExchange answer to “What are the various units (ex, em, in, pt, bp, dd, pc) expressed in mm?” is a great reference / snippet for the different units of measurement used in LaTeX.

Labels and references

As noted on the Wikibooks page, there are some conventional prefixes for label names in specific environments:

cleveref and others are clever enough to look up the type of labeled entity when referencing it, but this makes it easier to check your label name quickly.